This is a working overview of lyophilized powder, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
Reviewed 2026-05-18. Anything still debated is marked as such rather than presented as settled.
Proposed mechanisms for AOD-9604 focus on fat cells. Laboratory studies suggest the peptide can increase lipolysis, the breakdown of stored fat, and reduce lipogenesis, the formation of new fat. Unlike full human growth hormone, it does not appear to stimulate substantial IGF-1 production in the studies reported so far. Some evidence points to beta-adrenergic signaling, but the precise receptor targets and downstream pathways remain unresolved. The fragment is not thought to act through the classical growth hormone receptor.
Clinical development of AOD-9604 included trials in people with obesity. Reports from early-phase and mid-phase studies described modest or inconsistent changes in body weight. A phase IIb program did not meet its primary endpoint, and the compound was not approved for medical use. Differences in formulation, delivery route, and participant characteristics may explain some of the variation. Later investigations explored whether the peptide might have effects in other tissues, including cartilage.
Proposed mechanism focuses on lipolysis, the breakdown of stored triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol. AOD-9604 is thought to act on adipose tissue without stimulating appetite or affecting blood sugar in the same way as growth hormone. Laboratory studies report increased fat oxidation in some models. The precise receptor interactions and signaling pathways remain incompletely characterized. Researchers have proposed that the peptide may influence fat mobilization through pathways distinct from the full hormone.
Research has examined whether the peptide affects fat mass independently of growth hormone's other actions. Early animal studies suggested reductions in body fat, but species differences and small sample sizes limit interpretation. Human studies have generally been short and have not consistently shown large effects. Some trials measured body composition, lipid profiles, and safety parameters, but the overall picture is one of suggestive yet inconclusive metabolic activity. Findings vary across study populations and protocols.
A central uncertainty is whether observed metabolic changes translate into meaningful clinical benefits. Study designs vary in dose, duration, and participant characteristics, making comparisons difficult. Independent replication is limited, and the field lacks consensus on optimal endpoints or treatment duration. Ongoing or future studies may clarify mechanism and effect size, but current evidence does not establish a clear therapeutic role. Researchers often call for larger, longer, and better-controlled trials, while questions remain about which patient groups might respond.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Typical storage temperature | -20 °C | Lyophilized peptide; protect from moisture and light. |
| Typical analytical method | HPLC and mass spectrometry | Used to confirm identity and estimate purity. |
| Common synonyms | AOD9604; hGH 176-191 | Naming varies by supplier and publication. |
| Disulfide bonds | One | Affects folded structure and stability. |
| Typical research purity | ≥95% | Value depends on supplier and analytical method. |
AOD-9604 is a synthetic peptide whose structure corresponds to a C-terminal segment of human growth hormone. It is often described as hGH fragment 176-191, a 16-amino-acid sequence. The peptide was designed to isolate a region of hGH associated with fat metabolism while avoiding the full hormone's growth-promoting actions. Laboratory and commercial materials typically present it as a lyophilized powder for research use. Its identity is defined by amino acid sequence, not by a single brand.
The fragment includes residues that can form an internal disulfide bond between two cysteine positions. This structural feature can influence how the peptide folds and how stable it is in solution. AOD-9604 differs from full-length hGH in size and receptor interactions; it does not contain the entire growth hormone sequence. Published descriptions sometimes use slightly different residue numbering, so sequence information should be checked against primary sources. The molecule is small compared with intact hGH, which affects analytical detection and purification approaches.
AOD-9604 is typically supplied as a lyophilized white to off-white powder. In this form, it is relatively stable when kept cool, dry, and protected from light. Common storage recommendations place it at −20 °C or below for long-term retention. Reconstituted solutions are less stable and are often kept at 2–8 °C for short periods. Freeze-thaw cycles should be minimized because they can promote aggregation or loss of peptide content. Vials are usually sealed under inert gas to reduce oxidation.
Identity and purity are commonly checked with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. RP-HPLC separates the peptide from related impurities and can estimate purity by peak area. Mass spectrometry confirms molecular mass and helps detect sequence variants or truncations. Some laboratories use amino acid analysis or peptide mapping for additional characterization. No single method proves biological activity; these techniques establish chemical identity and purity only. They also require suitable reference standards for confident comparison.
Identity and purity are usually assessed with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Reversed-phase HPLC separates the peptide from related impurities and can estimate purity by ultraviolet absorbance, while mass spectrometry confirms the molecular mass and detects modifications. Peptide mapping, amino acid analysis, and disulfide mapping may be used when the sequence or disulfide arrangement must be verified. Because AOD9604 contains cysteine residues, oxidation and disulfide isomers are possible quality concerns in synthetic batches.
Quality varies among research-grade suppliers, so certificates of analysis and independent testing are important for verification. A typical certificate reports purity by HPLC, identity by mass spectrometry, appearance, and sometimes residual solvents or water content. AOD9604 is often sold as a research chemical not intended for human consumption, and labels can be inaccurate. Common misconceptions include treating the peptide as a form of growth hormone, assuming supplement status, or expecting approved-drug quality from unregulated products.
Regulatory interest in AOD-9604 increased after high-profile anti-doping cases involving peptide products. In some cases, the substance was supplied under alternative names or in compounded preparations, complicating traceability. Sports tribunals and anti-doping panels have discussed whether the peptide was explicitly banned at the time of use, leading to clarifications by the World Anti-Doping Agency. For consumers and researchers, the legal status can vary by jurisdiction, and products marketed as research chemicals may lack independent quality verification.
AOD-9604 is listed as a prohibited substance in sport by the World Anti-Doping Agency. It falls under the peptide hormones, growth factors, related substances, and mimetics class on the prohibited list. Anti-doping organizations treat its presence in an athlete's sample as an adverse finding unless a therapeutic use exemption applies. The prohibition reflects concerns about performance enhancement in competitive settings and the difficulty of distinguishing exogenous peptide use from endogenous hormone fragments.
Detection of AOD-9604 in biological samples relies on analytical techniques capable of distinguishing a small synthetic peptide from related endogenous sequences. Liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry is commonly used for confirmatory analysis. Sample preparation may involve immunoaffinity enrichment or solid-phase extraction to concentrate the peptide. Because the molecule is small and may be present at low concentrations, assay sensitivity and specificity are ongoing analytical challenges. Laboratories also validate methods against reference materials when available.
An experiment comparing the permeability of quantum dots coated in polyethylene glycol (PEG), PEG-amine, and carboxylic acid concluded the PEG and PEG-amine surface groups allowed for the greatest penetration of particles. The carboxylic acid coated particles did not penetrate past the stratum corneum.
with TA the total concentration of species A. Note that it is customary to omit the ionic charges when writing and using these equations. When the equilibrium constants are known and the total concentrations are specified there are two equations in two unknown "free concentrations" [A] and [H]. This follows from the fact that [HA] = β1[A] [H], [H2A] = β2[A] [H]2 and [OH] = Kw[H]−1
Yuchanyan is an early Neolithic cave site in Dao County (Daoxian), Hunan, China. The site yielded sherds of ceramic vessels and other artifacts which were dated by analysis of charcoal and bone collagen, giving a date range of 17,500 to 18,300 years old for the pottery. The pottery specimens may be the oldest known examples of pottery. The cave yielded fragmentary remains of 2 or more ceramic vessels, in addition to large amounts of ash, a rich animal bone assemblage, cobble and flake artifacts, bone tools, and shell tools. The artifacts indicate that the cave was a Late Paleolithic foragers' camp. Here we report on the radiocarbon ages of the sediments based on analyses of charcoal and bone collagen. The best-preserved charcoal and bone samples were identified by prescreening in the field and laboratory. The dates range from around 21,000 to 13,800 cal BP. The age of the ancient pottery ranges between 18,300 and 15,430 cal BP. Charcoal and bone collagen samples located above and below one of the fragments produced dates of around 18,000. These ceramic potsherds therefore provide some of the earliest evidence for pottery making in China.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
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=== Sclerotherapy === Doxycycline is also used for sclerotherapy in venous and lymphatic malformations, as well as post-operative lymphoceles (collections of lymph fluid outside of lymphatic vessels).
=== Analogues === Although several related compounds are disclosed in the original patent, no activity data are provided and it was unclear whether these share tianeptine's unique pharmacological effects. More recent structure-activity relationship studies have since been conducted, providing some further insight on μ-opioid, δ-opioid, and pharmacokinetic activity. Derivatives where the aromatic chlorine substituent is replaced by bromine, iodine or methylthio, and/or the heptanoic acid tail is varied in length or replaced with other groups such as 3-methoxypropyl, show similar or increased opioid receptor activity relative to tianeptine, with up to 13x higher potency than tianeptine itself. Amineptine, the most closely related drug to have been widely studied, is a dopamine reuptake inhibitor with no significant effect on serotonin levels, nor opioid agonist activity. Tianeptinaline and tianeptinostat, analogues of tianeptine, are potent histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Major drug regulators have not approved AOD-9604 for weight loss or any other therapeutic indication. It remains an investigational compound studied in research settings.
The World Anti-Doping Agency classifies it as a prohibited peptide hormone. Athletes under anti-doping rules are not permitted to use it. Its presence can trigger a doping violation.
It is a fragment of growth hormone rather than a substance that signals the pituitary to release more hormone. Studies have not shown a consistent rise in IGF-1 or full growth hormone. Its metabolic effects, if any, appear separate from those of the complete hormone.
It is proposed to promote lipolysis in fat tissue, the breakdown of stored fat into fatty acids and glycerol. The detailed receptor and signaling mechanisms are not fully established.